what did martin luther nail to the church door

Disputation by Martin Luther on indulgences

Ninety-5 Theses

1517 Nuremberg printing of the Ninety-v Theses as a placard, now in the Berlin State Library
Author	Martin Luther
Original title	Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum[a]
Land	Germany
Linguistic communication	Latin
Publication date	31 October 1517 (10 November 1517 New Style)
Text	Ninety-v Theses at Wikisource

The Ninety-five Theses or Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences ^[a] is a list of propositions for an academic disputation written in 1517 by Martin Luther, professor of moral theology at the University of Wittenberg, Germany, at the fourth dimension controlled past the Electorate of Saxony. Retrospectively considered to signal the birth of Protestantism, this document advances Luther's positions against what he saw as the abuse of the practise of clergy selling plenary indulgences, which were certificates believed to reduce the temporal punishment in purgatory for sins committed by the purchasers or their loved ones. In the Theses, Luther claimed that the repentance required by Christ in social club for sins to be forgiven involves inner spiritual repentance rather than merely external sacramental confession. He argued that indulgences led Christians to avert true repentance and sorrow for sin, believing that they could forgo it by obtaining an indulgence. These indulgences, according to Luther, discouraged Christians from giving to the poor and performing other acts of mercy, which he attributed to a belief that indulgence certificates were more spiritually valuable (despite the fact that indulgences were granted for such actions). Though Luther claimed that his positions on indulgences accorded with those of the Pope, the Theses challenge a 14th-century papal bull stating that the pope could use the treasury of merit and the good deeds of past saints to forgive temporal punishment for sins. The Theses are framed as propositions to be argued in debate rather than necessarily representing Luther'due south opinions, but Luther later clarified his views in the Explanations of the Disputation Concerning the Value of Indulgences.

Luther sent the Theses enclosed with a letter of the alphabet to Albert of Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mainz, on 31 October 1517, a date at present considered the start of the Reformation and commemorated annually as Reformation Day. Luther may have also posted the Ninety-v Theses on the door of All Saints' Church and other churches in Wittenberg, in accordance with University custom, on 31 October or in mid-Nov. The Theses were speedily reprinted and translated, and distributed throughout Germany and Europe. They initiated a pamphlet war with the indulgence preacher Johann Tetzel, which spread Luther's fame fifty-fifty farther. Luther'due south ecclesiastical superiors had him tried for heresy, which culminated in his excommunication in 1521. Though the Theses were the start of the Reformation, Luther did not consider indulgences to exist as of import as other theological matters which would divide the church, such as justification by faith alone and the bondage of the will. His breakthrough on these issues would come afterward, and he did not see the writing of the Theses as the point at which his beliefs diverged from those of the Roman Cosmic Church building.

Background [edit]

Martin Luther, professor of moral theology at the University of Wittenberg and town preacher,^[2] wrote the Ninety-v Theses against the gimmicky practise of the church with respect to indulgences. In the Roman Catholic Church, practically the simply Christian church in Western Europe at the time, indulgences are part of the economy of salvation. In this system, when Christians sin and confess, they are forgiven and no longer stand to receive eternal punishment in hell, but may nonetheless be liable to temporal punishment.^[3] This penalty could be satisfied past the penitent'due south performing works of mercy.^[4] If the temporal penalization is not satisfied during life, it needs to be satisfied in Purgatory, a place believed past Catholics to exist between Sky and Hell. By an indulgence (which may exist understood in the sense of "kindness"), this temporal punishment could be lessened.^[three] Nether abuses of the system of indulgences, clergy benefited by selling indulgences and the pope gave official sanction in exchange for a fee.^[5]

Woodcut of an indulgence-seller in a church from a 1521 pamphlet

Popes are empowered to grant plenary indulgences, which provide consummate satisfaction for any remaining temporal penalisation due to sins, and these were purchased on behalf of people believed to be in purgatory. This led to the popular saying, "Every bit soon as the money in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs". Theologians at the University of Paris had criticized this maxim late in the 15th century.^[six] Earlier critics of indulgences included John Wycliffe, who denied that the pope had jurisdiction over Purgatory. Jan Hus and his followers had advocated a more than severe system of penance, in which indulgences were not available.^[vii] Johannes von Wesel had also attacked indulgences tardily in the 15th century.^[viii] Political rulers had an interest in decision-making indulgences because local economies suffered when the coin for indulgences left a given territory. Rulers ofttimes sought to receive a portion of the gain or prohibited indulgences altogether, as Duke George did in Luther'southward Balloter Saxony.^[9]

In 1515, Pope Leo 10 granted a plenary indulgence intended to finance the construction of St. Peter'south Basilica in Rome.^[10] Information technology would apply to almost any sin, including adultery and theft. All other indulgence preaching was to cease for the eight years in which it was offered. Indulgence preachers were given strict instructions on how the indulgence was to be preached, and they were much more laudatory of the indulgence than those of before indulgences.^[11] Johann Tetzel was commissioned to preach and offering the indulgence in 1517, and his campaign in cities about Wittenberg drew many Wittenbergers to travel to these cities and purchase them, since sales had been prohibited in Wittenberg and other Saxon cities.^[12]

Luther also had a rather negative experience and idea with the indulgences connected to All Saints' Church building, Wittenberg.^[thirteen] By venerating the large collection of relics at the church, one could receive an indulgence.^[xiv] He had preached as early equally 1514 against the abuse of indulgences and the way they cheapened grace rather than requiring true repentance.^[xv] Luther became particularly concerned in 1517 when his parishioners, returning from purchasing Tetzel's indulgences, claimed that they no longer needed to repent and change their lives in lodge to be forgiven of sin. Later on hearing what Tetzel had said nigh indulgences in his sermons, Luther began to study the result more than carefully, and contacted experts on the subject. He preached near indulgences several times in 1517, explaining that true repentance was better than purchasing an indulgence.^[xvi] He taught that receiving an indulgence presupposed that the penitent had confessed and repented, otherwise it was worthless. A truly repentant sinner would likewise not seek an indulgence, because they loved God's righteousness and desired the inwards punishment of their sin.^[17] These sermons seem to have ceased from April to October 1517, presumably while Luther was writing the Ninety-five Theses.^[18] He composed a Treatise on Indulgences, obviously in early fall 1517. Information technology is a cautious and searching exam of the field of study.^[19] He contacted church building leaders on the subject area by letter, including his superior Hieronymus Schulz [de], Bishop of Brandenburg, one-time on or before 31 October, when he sent the Theses to Archbishop Albert of Brandenburg.^[20]

Content [edit]

The iconic beginning thesis states, "When our Lord and Principal Jesus Christ said, 'Repent,' he willed the entire life of believers to be one of repentance." In the first few theses Luther develops the idea of repentance as the Christian's inner struggle with sin rather than the external arrangement of sacramental confession.^[21] Theses 5–seven and so land that the pope tin only release people from the punishments he has administered himself or through the church's system of penance, non the guilt of sin. The pope can only announce God'south forgiveness of the guilt of sin in his name.^[22] In theses 14–29, Luther challenged common beliefs about purgatory. Theses 14–sixteen discuss the idea that the penalization of purgatory can be likened to the fearfulness and despair felt by dying people.^[23] In theses 17–24 he asserts that nothing can exist definitively said virtually the spiritual state of people in purgatory. He denies that the pope has any power over people in purgatory in theses 25 and 26. In theses 27–29, he attacks the idea that as presently as payment is made, the payer's loved one is released from purgatory. He sees it as encouraging sinful greed, and says information technology is impossible to be certain because only God has ultimate ability in forgiving punishments in purgatory.^[24]

1525 woodcut of forgiveness from Christ outweighing the pope's indulgences

Theses 30–34 deal with the faux certainty Luther believed the indulgence preachers offered Christians. Since no 1 knows whether a person is truly repentant, a letter assuring a person of his forgiveness is dangerous. In theses 35 and 36, he attacks the idea that an indulgence makes repentance unnecessary. This leads to the conclusion that the truly repentant person, who alone may benefit from the indulgence, has already received the just benefit the indulgence provides. Truly repentant Christians take already, according to Luther, been forgiven of the penalty as well as the guilt of sin.^[24] In thesis 37, he states that indulgences are not necessary for Christians to receive all the benefits provided by Christ. Theses 39 and 40 argue that indulgences make true repentance more difficult. True repentance desires God's punishment of sin, but indulgences teach i to avert penalization, since that is the purpose of purchasing the indulgence.^[25]

In theses 41–47 Luther criticizes indulgences on the ground that they discourage works of mercy by those who buy them. Hither he begins to use the phrase, "Christians are to be taught..." to country how he thinks people should be instructed on the value of indulgences. They should be taught that giving to the poor is incomparably more important than ownership indulgences, that buying an indulgence rather than giving to the poor invites God's wrath, and that doing expert works makes a person better while ownership indulgences does not. In theses 48–52 Luther takes the side of the pope, saying that if the pope knew what was being preached in his name he would rather St. Peter's Basilica be burned downwardly than "built up with the skin, flesh, and bones of his sheep".^[25] Theses 53–55 complain about the restrictions on preaching while the indulgence was beingness offered.^[26]

Luther criticizes the doctrine of the treasury of merit on which the doctrine of indulgences is based in theses 56–66. He states that everyday Christians do non understand the doctrine and are existence misled. For Luther, the true treasure of the church is the gospel of Jesus Christ. This treasure tends to be hated considering it makes "the commencement concluding",^[27] in the words of Matthew 19:30 and 20:xvi.^[28] Luther uses metaphor and wordplay to describe the treasures of the gospel every bit nets to catch wealthy people, whereas the treasures of indulgences are nets to catch the wealth of men.^[27]

Kickoff folio of the 1517 Basel printing of the Theses as a pamphlet

In theses 67–80, Luther discusses further the bug with the manner indulgences are existence preached, as he had done in the alphabetic character to Archbishop Albert. The preachers have been promoting indulgences as the greatest of the graces available from the church building, simply they actually but promote greed. He points out that bishops take been commanded to offer reverence to indulgence preachers who enter their jurisdiction, but bishops are also charged with protecting their people from preachers who preach reverse to the pope's intention.^[27] He and then attacks the belief allegedly propagated past the preachers that the indulgence could forgive one who had violated the Virgin Mary. Luther states that indulgences cannot take abroad the guilt of even the lightest of venial sins. He labels several other alleged statements of the indulgence preachers as irreverence: that Saint Peter could non have granted a greater indulgence than the electric current one, and that the indulgence cross with the papal arms is every bit worthy equally the cross of Christ.^[29]

Luther lists several criticisms advanced by laypeople against indulgences in theses 81–91. He presents these as hard objections his congregants are bringing rather than his own criticisms. How should he answer those who inquire why the pope does not simply empty purgatory if it is in his power? What should he say to those who ask why anniversary masses for the dead, which were for the sake of those in purgatory, continued for those who had been redeemed by an indulgence? Luther claimed that it seemed strange to some that pious people in purgatory could be redeemed by living impious people. Luther also mentions the question of why the pope, who is very rich, requires coin from poor believers to build St. Peter'southward Basilica. Luther claims that ignoring these questions risks allowing people to ridicule the pope.^[29] He appeals to the pope's financial interest, saying that if the preachers limited their preaching in accord with Luther's positions on indulgences (which he claimed was also the pope's position), the objections would terminate to be relevant.^[thirty] Luther closes the Theses by exhorting Christians to imitate Christ even if it brings hurting and suffering. Enduring punishment and entering heaven is preferable to simulated security.^[31]

Luther's intent [edit]

The Theses are written equally propositions to be argued in a formal academic disputation,^[32] though there is no evidence that such an event ever took place.^[33] In the heading of the Theses, Luther invited interested scholars from other cities to participate. Belongings such a debate was a privilege Luther held equally a doc, and information technology was not an unusual form of academic inquiry.^[32] Luther prepared twenty sets of theses for disputation at Wittenberg between 1516 and 1521.^[34] Andreas Karlstadt had written a set of such theses in April 1517, and these were more radical in theological terms than Luther'due south. He posted them on the door of All Saints' Church, equally Luther was alleged to have done with the Ninety-v Theses. Karlstadt posted his theses at a time when the relics of the church were placed on display, and this may have been considered a provocative gesture. Similarly, Luther posted the 90-five Theses on the eve of All Saints' Solar day, the well-nigh important solar day of the year for the brandish of relics at All Saints' Church.^[35]

Luther's theses were intended to begin a fence among academics, not a popular revolution,^[34] but there are indications that he saw his action as prophetic and significant. Around this time, he began using the name "Luther" and sometimes "Eleutherius", Greek for "free", rather than "Luder". This seems to refer to his being free from the scholastic theology which he had argued against earlier that year.^[36] Luther later on claimed not to have desired the Theses to exist widely distributed. Elizabeth Eisenstein has argued that his claimed surprise at their success may have involved self-deception and Hans Hillerbrand has claimed that Luther was certainly intending to instigate a large controversy.^[1] At times, Luther seems to utilize the academic nature of the Theses as a embrace to allow him to attack established behavior while being able to deny that he intended to attack church teaching. Since writing a ready of theses for a disputation does not necessarily commit the author to those views, Luther could deny that he held the most incendiary ideas in the Theses.^[37]

Distribution and publication [edit]

On 31 October 1517, Luther sent a letter to the Archbishop of Mainz, Albert of Brandenburg, nether whose authority the indulgences were being sold. In the letter, Luther addresses the archbishop out of a loyal desire to alert him to the pastoral problems created past the indulgence sermons. He assumes that Albert is unaware of what is beingness preached under his dominance, and speaks out of concern that the people are beingness led away from the gospel, and that the indulgence preaching may bring shame to Albert's name. Luther does not condemn indulgences or the current doctrine regarding them, nor even the sermons which had been preached themselves, every bit he had non seen them firsthand. Instead he states his concern regarding the misunderstandings of the people nearly indulgences which take been fostered by the preaching, such every bit the belief that whatsoever sin could be forgiven past indulgences or that the guilt equally well every bit the punishment for sin could be forgiven by an indulgence. In a postscript, Luther wrote that Albert could notice some theses on the matter enclosed with his letter, so that he could see the uncertainty surrounding the doctrine of indulgences in contrast to the preachers who spoke then confidently of the benefits of indulgences.^[38]

This 19th-century painting past Julius Hübner sensationalizes Luther'south posting of the Theses before a crowd. In reality, posting theses for a disputation would have been routine.

It was customary when proposing a disputation to have the theses printed by the university printing and publicly posted.^[39] No copies of a Wittenberg printing of the 90-five Theses accept survived, merely this is non surprising as Luther was not famous and the importance of the document was not recognized.^{[40] [b]} In Wittenberg, the academy statutes demand that theses be posted on every church door in the urban center, simply Philip Melanchthon, who offset mentioned the posting of the Theses, but mentioned the door of All Saints' Church.^{[c] [42]} Melanchthon also claimed that Luther posted the Theses on 31 October, but this conflicts with several of Luther'due south statements about the course of events,^[32] and Luther always claimed that he brought his objections through proper channels rather than inciting a public controversy.^[43] It is possible that while Luther later on saw the 31 October letter of the alphabet to Albert as the commencement of the Reformation, he did non post the Theses to the church door until mid-Nov, but he may not accept posted them on the door at all.^[32] Regardless, the Theses were well known amidst the Wittenberg intellectual elite soon afterward Luther sent them to Albert.^[xl]

The Theses were copied and distributed to interested parties shortly after Luther sent the alphabetic character to Archbishop Albert.^[44] The Latin Theses were printed in a four-folio pamphlet in Basel, and as placards in Leipzig and Nuremberg.^{[one] [44]} In all, several hundred copies of the Latin Theses were printed in Germany in 1517. Kaspar Nützel [de] in Nuremberg translated them into German later that year, and copies of this translation were sent to several interested parties across Deutschland,^[44] but it was non necessarily printed.^{[45] [d]}

Reaction [edit]

Albert seems to have received Luther'south letter of the alphabet with the Theses around the cease of Nov. He requested the opinion of theologians at the University of Mainz and conferred with his advisers. His advisers recommended he have Luther prohibited from preaching confronting indulgences in accord with the indulgence bull. Albert requested such action from the Roman Curia.^[47] In Rome, Luther was immediately perceived every bit a threat.^[48] In February 1518, Pope Leo asked the head of the Augustinian Hermits, Luther'south religious order, to convince him to stop spreading his ideas about indulgences.^[47] Sylvester Mazzolini was too appointed to write an opinion which would exist used in the trial against him.^[49] Mazzolini wrote A Dialogue confronting Martin Luther'due south Presumptuous Theses concerning the Power of the Pope, which focused on Luther's questioning of the pope's authority rather than his complaints about indulgence preaching.^[l] Luther received a summons to Rome in August 1518.^[49] He responded with Explanations of the Disputation Apropos the Value of Indulgences, in which he attempted to clear himself of the accuse that he was attacking the pope.^[50] Equally he set up down his views more extensively, Luther seems to have recognized that the implications of his beliefs set up him further from official teaching than he initially knew. He subsequently said he might not accept begun the controversy had he known where it would pb.^[51] The Explanations accept been called Luther'due south first Reformation piece of work.^[52]

Johann Tetzel responded to the Theses by calling for Luther to be burnt for heresy and having theologian Konrad Wimpina write 106 theses against Luther's piece of work. Tetzel defended these in a disputation earlier the University of Frankfurt on the Oder in January 1518.^[54] 800 copies of the printed disputation were sent to be sold in Wittenberg, simply students of the University seized them from the bookseller and burned them. Luther became increasingly fearful that the state of affairs was out of hand and that he would be in danger. To placate his opponents, he published a Sermon on Indulgences and Grace, which did not challenge the pope's authorization.^[55] This pamphlet, written in German, was very brusque and easy for laypeople to sympathise.^[45] Luther's first widely successful work, information technology was reprinted twenty times.^[56] Tetzel responded with a bespeak-by-betoken refutation, citing heavily from the Bible and important theologians.^{[57] [e]} His pamphlet was non near as popular as Luther'southward. Luther's respond to Tetzel'southward pamphlet, on the other mitt, was another publishing success for Luther.^{[59] [f]}

Another prominent opponent of the Theses was Johann Eck, Luther's friend and a theologian at the University of Ingolstadt. Eck wrote a refutation, intended for the Bishop of Eichstätt, entitled the Obelisks. This was in reference to the obelisks used to mark heretical passages in texts in the Middle Ages. It was a harsh and unexpected personal attack, charging Luther with heresy and stupidity. Luther responded privately with the Asterisks, titled after the asterisk marks and then used to highlight important texts. Luther'southward response was angry and he expressed the opinion that Eck did not understand the matter on which he wrote.^[61] The dispute betwixt Luther and Eck would become public in the 1519 Leipzig Argue.^[57]

Luther was summoned by potency of the pope to defend himself against charges of heresy earlier Thomas Cajetan at Augsburg in October 1518. Cajetan did not allow Luther to argue with him over his alleged heresies, simply he did place ii points of controversy. The first was against the 58th thesis, which stated that the pope could not employ the treasury of merit to forgive temporal punishment of sin.^[62] This contradicted the papal bull Unigenitus promulgated past Cloudless VI in 1343.^[63] The 2d point was whether one could be assured that they had been forgiven when their sin had been absolved by a priest. Luther's Explanations on thesis seven asserted that one could based on God's promise, but Cajetan argued that the humble Christian should never assume to be certain of their standing before God.^[62] Luther refused to recant and requested that the case be reviewed past university theologians. This request was denied, so Luther appealed to the pope earlier leaving Augsburg.^[64] Luther was finally excommunicated in 1521 afterwards he burned the papal bull threatening him to recant or face excommunication.^[65]

Legacy [edit]

Impress made for the 1617 Reformation Jubilee showing Luther inscribing the Theses on the Wittenberg church door with a behemothic quill

The indulgence controversy fix off past the Theses was the beginning of the Reformation, a schism in the Roman Cosmic Church building which initiated profound and lasting social and political change in Europe.^[66] Luther later stated that the issue of indulgences was insignificant relative to controversies which he would enter into later, such as his argue with Erasmus over the bondage of the will,^[67] nor did he see the controversy equally of import to his intellectual quantum regarding the gospel. Luther later on wrote that at the time he wrote the Theses he remained a "papist", and he did not seem to recollect the Theses represented a intermission with established Roman Cosmic doctrine.^[43] But it was out of the indulgences controversy that the motion which would be called the Reformation began, and the controversy propelled Luther to the leadership position he would hold in that motion.^[67] The Theses too made evident that Luther believed the church was not preaching properly and that this put the laity in serious danger. Further, the Theses contradicted the prescript of Pope Clement VI, in 1343, that indulgences are the treasury of the church. This disregard for papal authority presaged later conflicts.^[68]

31 October 1517, the solar day Luther sent the Theses to Albert, was commemorated every bit the beginning of the Reformation equally early as 1527, when Luther and his friends raised a drinking glass of beer to commemorate the "trampling out of indulgences".^[69] The posting of the Theses was established in the historiography of the Reformation as the beginning of the movement by Philip Melanchthon in his 1548 Historia de vita et actis Lutheri. During the 1617 Reformation Jubilee, the centenary of 31 October was celebrated by a procession to the Wittenberg Church building where Luther was believed to take posted the Theses. An engraving was fabricated showing Luther writing the Theses on the door of the church with a gigantic quill. The quill penetrates the head of a panthera leo symbolizing Pope Leo X.^[70] In 1668, 31 October was made Reformation Day, an annual holiday in Electoral Saxony, which spread to other Lutheran lands.^[71] 31 October 2017, the 500th Anniversary of Reformation Day, was celebrated with a national public holiday throughout Germany.^[72]

Run across also [edit]

• Chinese 95 theses

Notes and references [edit]

Notes [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Latin: Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum-The title comes from the 1569 Basel pamphlet printing. The first printings of the Theses employ an incipit rather than a championship which summarizes the content. The 1569 Nuremberg placard edition opens Amore et studio elucidande veritatis: hec subscripta disputabuntur Wittenberge. Presidente R.P Martin Luther ... Quare petit: vt qui non possunt verbis presentes nobiscum disceptare: agant id literis absentes. Luther usually called them " meine Propositiones " (my propositions).^[ane]
2. ^ The Wittenberg printer was Johann Rhau-Grunenberg [de]. A Rhau-Grunenberg printing of Luther's "Disputation Confronting Scholastic Theology", published only eight weeks earlier the Xc-5 Theses, was discovered in 1983.^[41] Its course is very similar to that of the Nuremberg press of the Ninety-five Theses. This is evidence for a Rhau-Grunenberg printing of the Ninety-five Theses, as the Nuremberg printing may exist a copy of the Wittenberg printing.^[40]
3. ^ Georg Rörer, Luther'due south scribe, claimed in a note that Luther posted the theses to every church door.
4. ^ No copies of the 1517 High german translation survive.^[46]
5. ^ Tetzel's pamphlet is titled Rebuttal Against a Presumptuous Sermon of Twenty Erroneous Manufactures.^[58]
6. ^ Luther's reply to Tetzel's Rebuttal is titled Concerning the Freedom of the Sermon on Papal Indulgences and Grace. Luther intends to free the Sermon from Tetzel's insults.^[60]

Citations [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Cummings 2002, p. 32.
2. ^ Junghans 2003, pp. 23, 25.
3. ^ ^{a b} Brecht 1985, p. 176.
4. ^ Wengert 2015a, p. xvi.
5. ^ Noll 2015, p. 31.
6. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 182.
7. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 177.
8. ^ Waibel 2005, p. 47.
9. ^ Brecht 1985, pp. 178, 183.
10. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 178.
11. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 180.
12. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 183.
13. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 186.
14. ^ Brecht 1985, pp. 117–118.
15. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 185.
16. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 184.
17. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 187.
18. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 188.
19. ^ Wicks 1967, p. 489.
20. ^ Leppin & Wengert 2015, p. 387.
21. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 192.
22. ^ Waibel 2005, p. 43.
23. ^ Wengert 2015b, p. 36.
24. ^ ^{a b} Brecht 1985, p. 194.
25. ^ ^{a b} Brecht 1985, p. 195.
26. ^ Waibel 2005, p. 44.
27. ^ ^{a b c} Brecht 1985, p. 196.
28. ^ Wengert 2015a, p. 22.
29. ^ ^{a b} Brecht 1985, p. 197.
30. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 198.
31. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 199.
32. ^ ^{a b c d} Brecht 1985, pp. 199–200.
33. ^ Leppin & Wengert 2015, p. 388.
34. ^ ^{a b} Hendrix 2015, p. 61.
35. ^ McGrath 2011, pp. 23–24.
36. ^ Lohse 1999, p. 101.
37. ^ Cummings 2002, p. 35.
38. ^ Brecht 1985, pp. 190–192.
39. ^ Pettegree 2015, p. 128.
40. ^ ^{a b c} Pettegree 2015, p. 129.
41. ^ Pettegree 2015, p. 97.
42. ^ Wengert 2015b, p. 23.
43. ^ ^{a b} Marius 1999, p. 138.
44. ^ ^{a b c} Hendrix 2015, p. 62.
45. ^ ^{a b} Leppin & Wengert 2015, p. 389.
46. ^ Oberman 2006, p. 191.
47. ^ ^{a b} Brecht 1985, pp. 205–206.
48. ^ Pettegree 2015, p. 152.
49. ^ ^{a b} Brecht 1985, p. 242.
50. ^ ^{a b} Hendrix 2015, p. 66.
51. ^ Marius 1999, p. 145.
52. ^ Lohse 1986, p. 125.
53. ^ Stephenson 2010, p. 17.
54. ^ Brecht 1985, pp. 206–207.
55. ^ Hendrix 2015, p. 64.
56. ^ Brecht 1985, pp. 208–209.
57. ^ ^{a b} Hendrix 2015, p. 65.
58. ^ Pettegree 2015, p. 144.
59. ^ Pettegree 2015, p. 145.
60. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 209.
61. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 212.
62. ^ ^{a b} Hequet 2015, p. 124.
63. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 253.
64. ^ Hequet 2015, p. 125.
65. ^ Brecht 1985, p. 427.
66. ^ Dixon 2002, p. 23.
67. ^ ^{a b} McGrath 2011, p. 26.
68. ^ Wengert 2015a, pp. xliii–xliv.
69. ^ Stephenson 2010, pp. 39–forty.
70. ^ Cummings 2002, pp. xv–sixteen.
71. ^ Stephenson 2010, p. 40.
72. ^ "Reformation Day 2021, 2022 and 2023".

Sources [edit]

• Brecht, Martin (1985) [1981]. Sein Weg zur Reformation 1483–1521 [Martin Luther: His Road to Reformation 1483–1521] (in German). Translated by James L. Schaff. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress. ISBN978-0-8006-2813-0. OCLC 985533561.
• Cummings, Brian (2002). The Literary Culture of the Reformation: Grammar and Grace . Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198187356.001.0001. ISBN978-0198187356 – via Oxford Scholarship Online.
• Dixon, C. Scott (2002). The Reformation in Germany. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell.
• Hendrix, Scott H. (2015). Martin Luther: Visionary Reformer. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN978-0-300-16669-9.
• Hequet, Suzanne (2015). "The Proceedings at Augsburg, 1518". In Wengert, Timothy J. (ed.). The Annotated Luther, Book 1: The Roots of Reform . Minneapolis, MN: Fortress. pp. 121–166. ISBN978-one-4514-6535-8 – via Projection MUSE.
• Junghans, Helmar (2003). "Luther's Wittenberg". In McKim, Donald Thou. (ed.). Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther. Cambridge: Cambridge University Printing. pp. twenty–36. doi:10.1017/CCOL0521816483.002. ISBN9780521816489.
• Leppin, Volker; Wengert, Timothy J. (2015). "Sources for and against the Posting of the Xc-Five Theses" (PDF). Lutheran Quarterly. 29: 373–398.
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• Marius, Richard (1999). Martin Luther: The Christian Between God and Expiry . Cambridge, MA: Belknap. ISBN978-0-674-55090-two.
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• Pettegree, Andrew (2015). Brand Luther. New York: Penguin. ISBN978-one-59420-496-8.
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External links [edit]

• Ninety-five Theses at Projection Gutenberg
• Xc-five Theses Modern English translation with commentary and notes
• Xc-five Theses public domain audiobook at LibriVox
• Latin original
• Luther 2017 Official website of 500th anniversary celebrations

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses

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